Aasresh

DBZ

2009-10-07T22:29:00.001-07:00

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Programes In C lang

2009-10-06T21:39:00.001-07:00

/* __MY__ first program
***********************
*/

/* Comments
***********
are ignored and used for
humans to clarify things.
*/

/* This is a
multi-line comment
******************
This can be also embedded comment
placed anywhere in program
Begins with "/*"
Ends with "*/"
*/

   // this is single line comment
   // *******************
   // it starts after "//" and continues upto the end of line
   // You CANNOT embedd this comment anywhere

  # include
//******************
// Typical first line in programs
// For using function "printf"

# include
# include
# include
# include
# include
# include
# include
# include
# include
// Not used here but to introduce some headers

  int main ( void ) {
//*******************
// Typical first functio in programs
//input is nill, so"void"

printf ( " Hello World !!! \n"
   " This is __MY__ first C Program. \n" ) ;

   // '\n' is new-line, an escape sequence
   // Note "string1" "string2"
   // separated by Whitespace will be concatenated
   // This is how you write big or multi-line strings

   // whitespace
   //***********
   // space ' '
   // newline '\n'
   // tab '\t'

system ( "PAUSE" ) ;
   // To see the output

return ( EXIT_SUCCESS ) ;
/*
EXIT_SUCCESS
************
EXIT_xxxx in
Constants defining exit conditions for calls to the exit function.

Name Meaning
EXIT_SUCCESS Normal program termination
EXIT_FAILURE Abnormal program termination
*/

} // main ends
  // *********
  // It is a good practice to tag all "}"
  // to show who matches it for "{"

CSE101 – Computer Programming and Problem Solving

2009-10-06T21:37:00.001-07:00

Lab Exercises

CAT-I

1. Write a program to print ‘Welcome to C Programming’.

2. Write a program with only printf() function for displaying the following pattern:

***

****

*****

3. With one printf() statement, print the following pattern of output:

I am

learning C

at SCS Lab

4. Write a program to evaluate a simple arithmetic expression.

5. Convert input miles to kilometers and print with proper sentence for the user. (1 mile = 1.609 km)

6. Write a sample program to show ‘immediate computation’.

7. Write program to convert Fahrenheit to Centigrade temperature scale. (F=(C*9/5)+32)

8. Write a program to compute maturity value on deposit of Rs 12,000 for 2 years with a simple interest rate of 7%. (Interest=PNR/100)

9. Code programs to calculate the following:

a) Area of a square

b) Area of a rectangle

c) Area of a triangle

d) Area of a circle

10. Code a program to convert decimal input into octal and hexadecimal formats. (with proper prefix for octal (0) and hexadecimal (0x)

11. Write a program to do the following:

Accept two integers below 100. Add them, and to the result, add 20; from this new result, subtract 12; divide (integer) this result by 5 to give you the final result. Print the final result. Also print the square and cube of this result.

12. Accept two integers from keyboard and print the results of arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %) on them. Do necessary modification on division operation statement to print the exact result (with two decimal places).

13. Program to subtract 45 from the decimal ASCII value of character ‘a’. Divide it by 3.5. Print the result up to two decimal places.

14. Code a program to print the memory sizes of all data types (with qualifiers) you have learnt so far.

15. Code program to print true or false (representation) for different relational expressions.

16. Given a=5, b=4, c=7.

d=(a++) + (--b)

e=(++d) * (c++)

f=--e

Find the final values of a, b, c, d, e, and f.

17. a) Write a program to find the greater of two integers using the relational operator.

b) Write a program to find the greater of two numbers using the conditional operator.

18. Code a program to exchange the values in two variables (swap).

19. Design your own program to use logical operators (&&, ||) as in truth table.

20. Use integer variables num1, num2, num3, num4, num5 and initialize them with values less than 1000. Use compound assignments to add 100 to num1; subtract 45 from num2; multiply num3 by 5; divide num4 by 5; modulo 4 on num5.

21. Write a program to print ‘Welcome to C Programming’ 10 times using if and goto.

22. Using if-else construct, code to determine if the input was an integer or non-numeric. It’s recommended to make the code as compact as possible.

23. Using do…while construct, design a program to display ‘Enter y/n: ’; and accept a character. When the character is other than ‘y’, ‘Y’, ‘n’, or ‘N’, the loop should repeat. For any character input from this list of four characters, the program execution should end.

24. (a) Write a program to accept numeric values one by one from keyboard until 00 is inputted. Print the sum and average of the inputted values.

(b) Write a similar program to accept numeric values. When a character is inputted, the program should terminate. Use exit() function.

25. Write a program to find the largest and smallest of given four numbers.

26. For a certain electrical circuit with an inductance L and resistance R, the damped natural frequency is given by

It’s desired to study the variation of this frequency with capacitance C. Write a program to tabulate frequency for C values from 0.01 μF to 0.1 μF in step of 0.01.

Consider that inductance, L=45 μH; and resistance, R=10000 ohms.

27. Write a calculator program with the following Menu prompt:

Calculator

------------

1. Add

2. Subtract

3. Multiply

4. Divide

5. Factorial

6. Exit

Enter your option: _

Accept the option followed by input of two values with appropriate prompt; print the output. (Hint: use else-if ladder)

Make required modification for displaying the Menu after every calculation.

28. Rewrite the Calculator program of Ex. 27 to use switch-case-break structure.

29. Write a program to display all the printable ASCII characters in a tabular form, each row with 10 characters.

30. Write a program to add all odd numbers between 1 and 100, using while, do…while, and for constructs.

31. Write a program to print all prime numbers between 1 and 100.

32. Write a program to find and print Amstrong numbers between 10 and 500.

(An Amstrong number is: the number the sum of cube of whose integers is same as the number.)

33. Code a program to print Multiplication Table from 1 to 10.

34. Code a program to find factorial of an input number.

35. Write a program to generate Fibonacci series. The number of generations desired is obtained as input.

36. Design and code a program to print ‘Welcome to Santhanam Lab’ repeatedly on new line, until any key on keyboard is pressed.

37. Program to calculate Net Salary of 10 employees of XYZ Company. Accept employees’ name, number, and grade one by one.

Given:

Deductions = PF + LIC Premium

Gross Salary = Basic Pay + HRA + TA

Net Salary = Gross Pay – Deductions

Grade Basic Pay DA HRA TA PF LIC

A 5000 45 20 15 13 12

B 4500 35 16 12 10 08

C 3500 30 12 10 05 02

Print output in tabular form:

Employee Name Employee # Gross Net

38. The e^x is a series and given as

e^x = 1+x+x²/2!+x³/3!+x⁴/4!+ …

For x=3, evaluate e^x. (You may have 7 terms considered.)

39. Design a program for understanding comma (,) operator. Code and test your program.

40. Design and code a program to accept any printable character from keyboard and display the type (l/c alphabet, u/c alphabet, number, or special character) of the character. Do not use library functions.

Functions and Structures

41. Write a function by name print() that prints “Welcome to C Functions.” Use it in main() function to print “Welcome to C functions.” five times on separate lines.

42. Code and test a function by name fact() with appropriate arguments for computing factorial of a number and returning the result to the calling function.

43. Code a program to accept an integer value. Pass this value to two functions - one to compute square value, and the other to compute cube value. Print the results from the functions.

44. Write a program that uses your function prime(). prime() is passed with the input number and it determines whether the number is a prime number or not.

45. Modify your calculator program with functions defined for mathematical operations. Include menu display.

46. Write a program that accepts integer input and passed to functions that determines if the input is an Amstrong number or a Perfect number.

47. Code a program to do the following with a structure:

a) Declare the structure with the following members:

Name char 20

Age int

Gender char 1

Marks float

b) Initialize the members with your values.

c) Print the memory space occupied by the structure object.

d) Print the formatted structure data.

48. Code to accept 10 telephone customers’ data into a structure object.

The fields are:

Customer name

Telephone number

Units to be billed

Calculate Bill Amount, which is Rent of Rs. 250 plus Re 0.80 for each unit.

Prepare the Bill and print it.

49. Define a global structure for with tag stud (members: Id, Name, Marks). Code a program to accept values for members of the structure. Write a function to print each member.

50. Write a program to transfer data from a 2D array into a struct with two members.

Course Code: CSE101 Title: Introduction to Computers and Problem Solving L T P C 2 0 2 3

2009-10-06T21:36:00.001-07:00

Unit I : Introduction to Computers and Algorithms

Parts of a computer – Overview of operating systems, compilers, interpreters and programming languages. Algorithms for exchanging the values of two variables, counting, summation of a set of numbers, factorial computation, sine function computation, generation of the Fibonacci sequence, reversing the digits of an integer, base conversion and character to number conversion.

Unit II : Constructs of C

Lexical elements – Operators - data types – I/O statements – format specifications – control statements – decision making and looping.

Unit III : Arrays

Array handling in C – declaration – single dimensional arrays, two – dimensional arrays, multi-dimensional arrays, sorting and searching on single and two dimensional arrays. Array order reversal, array counting or histogramming, finding the maximum number in a set, removal of duplicates from an ordered array, partition an array, finding the kth smallest element strings: Character array – string handling functions – manipulation on strings.

Unit IV : Functions

Prototype – declaration - arguments (formal and actual) – return types – types of functions difference between built-in and user-defined functions.

Unit V : Structures

Declarations - nested structures- array of structures - structure to functions - unions- difference between structure and union

Text Books :

1. Alexis Leon and Mathews Leon (2001), Introduction to InformatiTechnology, Tata McGraw-Hill.

2. R.G. Dromey (2001), How to Solve it by Computer, Prentice Hall of India.

3. Al Kelley and Ira Pohl (1998), A Book on C Programming in C, 4th Edition, Pearson Education.

Course Code: CSE101 Title: Introduction to Computers and Problem Solving Laboratory

Experiment No. Name of the Experiment

1. Simple programs using I/O functions

a. To read two numbers and display the result of addition

b. To read a name and display it.

c. To display multiple lines using a single printf statement for using escape sequences

2. Program using Control structures

1. Write a C program to evaluate the series: S = 1+1+1+1+1+….+N terms

2. Write a C program to solve the series S = 1+2+3+4+…+N

3. Program to print Multiplication table

4. Program to print Fibonacci series

5. Program to check for Prime numbers

6. To check whether a number is Armstrong number, Perfect number, Perfect square using switch case.

7. Write a C program to solve the series S = 1+2+3+4+…+N

8. To find the biggest among N numbers.

9. To solve the series S = -1+3-11+43-171+….

10. To find sum of digits of an integer and reverse a number.

11. Conversion of numbers from one base to another.

3. Program using Arrays

a. Read and display the sum and biggest element in an array

b. Read and sort the names in an array in descending order.

c. Perform Matrix operations

d. To search for a number in an array.

e. To find the sum of diagonal elements.

f. To find transpose of a matrix.

4. Program using Structures

a. To access students’ details

b. To add two complex numbers.

05BCE 403 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS,

L T P C : 3 0 0 3

Introduction to Embedded Systems: Processor in the System – Software Embedded into a system – Exemplary Embedded Systems – Embedded System-On-chip and in VLSI Circuit Processor and Memory

Organization – Structural Units in a Processor – Processor Selection for an Embedded System – Memory Devices – Memory Selection for an Embedded System – Allocation of Memory to Program Segments and Blocks and Memory Map of a System – Direct Memory Access – Interfacing Processor, Memories and I/O Devices.

Devices and Buses for Device Networks: I/O Devices – Timer and Counting Devices – Serial Communication Using the I2 C, ‘CAN’ and Advanced I/O Buses between the Networked Multiple Devices – Host System or Computer Parallel Communication between the Networked I/O Multiple Devices Using the ISA, PCI, PCI – X and Advanced Buses

Device Drivers and Interrupts Servicing Mechanism: Device Drivers – Parallel Port Device Drivers in a System – Serial Port Device Drivers in a System – Device Drivers for Internal Programmable Timing Devices – Interrupt Servicing (Handling) Mechanism – Context and the periods for Context – Switching, Deadline and Interrupt Latency

Program Modeling Concepts: Single and Multiprocessor Systems Software – Development Process- Modeling Processes for Software Analysis Before Software Implementation – Programming Models for Event Controlled or Response Time Constrained Real Time Programs – Modeling of Multiprocessor Systems

Software Engineering Practices: Embedded Software Development Process-Software Algorithm Complexity – Software Development Process Life Cycle and its Models – Software Analysis – Software Design – Software Implementation – Software Testing, Validating and Debugging – Real Time Programming Issues During the Software Development Process – Software Project Management – Software Maintenance –Unified Markup Language (UML) – Interprocess Communication & Synchronization of processes, Task & Threads – Multiple processes in an Application – Problems of Sharing Data by Multiple Tasks & Routines – Interprocess Communication.

TEXT BOOK: : 1. Rajkamal, “Embedded Systems-Application, Practice & Design”, Tata McGraw Hill, 2003

REFERENCE BOOKS: 1. Arnold S. Berger, “Embedded Systems Design”, CMP Books, 1997

05BCE409 L : EMBEDDED SYSTEMS LAB

L T P C : 0 0 4 2

Student has to do a mini project based on the knowledge acquired in the theory paper.

Comparative Study between Buddhism and Jainism

2009-10-06T21:28:00.001-07:00

Introduction
Buddhism
Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices considered by most to be a religion and is based on the teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as "The Buddha" (the Awakened One), who was born in what is today Nepal. He lived and taught in the north eastern region of the Indian subcontinent and most likely died around 400BCE. Buddhists recognize him as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering by understanding the true nature of phenomena, thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth , that is, achieving Nirvana. Among the methods various schools of Buddhism apply towards this goal are: ethical conduct and altruistic behaviour, devotional practices, ceremonies and the invocation of bodhisattvas, renunciation of worldly matters, cultivating continuous mindfulness, meditation, physical exercises, study, and the cultivation of wisdom.
Buddhism is broadly recognized as being composed of two major branches:
Theravada, which has a widespread following in Southeast Asia
Mahayana (including Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, Tibetan Buddhism and Tendai), found throughout East Asia. It should be noted that in some methods of classification, Vajrayana is considered a third branch.
While Buddhism remains most popular within these regions of Asia, both branches are now found throughout the world.
Origin
Buddhism originated in India by Siddhartha Gautama (about BC 565 - years ago, 486) to create. It is said that there is a Sakya Muni bus trip to see an old man, a disabled person, a self-cultivation, a dead man, life is all, birth, old age, sickness and death are painful. In order to find ways to lift the suffering of his determination to give up the right to inherit the throne, abandoned wife Aiko, to give up all the advantages of living, abandoned homes in the vast forests, to replace the prince's clothes, hair and shave, to follow the ascetic religious, Day for six years running, not even a shower to wash or not to find a solution to the problem. Later, he was a cross one's legs while sitting under the tree, after 49 days of Mingsikuxiang, when a bright rising star from the east, he thoroughly aware of all of a sudden, founded Buddhism. The basic teachings of Buddhism are: to oppose the people are divided into grades and advocating "equality problems" and sympathy for the unfortunate publicity karma, the idea of self-relief methods used to eliminate worry. Buddhist escape from the reality of these, the fight against the negative ideas, welcomed by the ruling class.

Jainism
Jainism (pronounced is an Indian religion that has suffered much persecution over the years. It is a Dharmic religion, developing in the predominantly-Hindu context of ancient India. Jains believe that every soul is divine and has the potential to achieve enlightenment or Moksha. Any soul which has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of Supreme being is called jina (Conqueror or Victor). Jainism is the path to achieve this state. Jainism is often referred to as Jain Dharma or Shraman Dharma or the religion of Nirgantha or religion of "Vratyas" by ancient texts.
Jainism was revived by a lineage of 24 enlightened ascetics called tirthankaras culminating with Parsva (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE). In the modern world, it is a small but influential religious minority with as many as 4 million followers in India and successful growing immigrant communities in North America, Western Europe, the Far East, Australia and elsewhere.
Jains have sustained the ancient Shraman or ascetic religion and have significantly influenced other religious, ethical, political and economic spheres in India.
Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship and have the highest degree of literacy in India.[ ; Jain libraries are the oldest in the country.

Origin
Jainism first emerged into historical visibility in the sixth century B.C.E. when it was one among many religious movements of the period that stressed world renunciation and rejected the religious culture and ritualism of the Brahman priestly class. Western scholars often single out Mahavira (who lived, according to Shvetambaratradition, from c. 599–527B.C.E.) as Jainism's founder. The Jains, however, maintain that Jainism's teachings are eternal and uncreated, and consider Mahavira to have been only the most recent of an infinite series of great Jain teachers. In fact, although Jainism's roots predate Mahavira, he played a key role in defining doctrines and practices that became central to Jainism as it evolved. Viable monastic communities with lay followings formed and grew after Mahavira's death. Patronized mainly by newly emerging urban classes (especially merchants) Jainism spread in two directions from its region of origin in the Ganges River basin: down India's eastern coast into the south and westward in the direction of Mathura. The division between the Svetambaras and Digambaras crystallized in the fifth century C.E. The south ultimately became the heartland of theDigambaras;there they flourished and found royal patronage, especially in Karnataka. The Shvetambaras became prominent in the west, especially in what is now Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Causes for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism
Religious life in ancient India was originally very simple. But in course of time complex rituals and ceremonies began to dominate the practice of worship. Poor people were unable to observe them
.
Religion lost its simplicity. It became expensive and elaborate. Blind faith and superstitious beliefs confused the people.

Caste system became rigid and it created inequality in the society.

Religious literature was in Sanskrit. The common people spoke in Prakrit and Pali : They could not understand Sanskrit.

The priestly class took advantage of it. They interpreted religion according to their convenience.

They considered themselves superior and others as inferiors.

Animal sacrifice became common. People did not like it.

People wanted a simple religion which would remove the evils in the society.

Early life of Gautam Buddha and Mahavira and its influences

Jainism

Vardamana Mahavira

Jainism originated in the 6th century B.C. It rejected Vedic religion and avoided its rituals. Vardamana Mahavira was the founder of Jainism. But the Jains believe that their religion had been founded long ago by Rishaba Deva. Rishabha Deva was succeeded by 23Thirthankaras (prophets).Mahavira was the 24th Thirthankara. It is believed that Rishabha Deva was the father of King Bharata, the first Chakravatin king of India.

Vardamana was born in 539 B.C. in a village called Kundagrama near Vaisali in Bihar. His father was Siddhartha. He was the head of a famous Kshatriya clan. His mother was Trisala. She was a princess of the Lichchavi clan. She was the sister of the ruler of Vaisali. Vardamana was married to Yasoda, a princess. They had a daughter. In the beginning he led a life of luxury and pleasure. But gradually, his attitude about life changed. He became disgusted with life in general and the Vedic religion in particular. At the age of 30, he left his home and family. He became an ascetic (monk). He wandered from place to place in search of truth for 12 years. At the age of 42, he conquered his senses. He attained the greatest Spiritual knowledge or Kaivalya. He stopped wearing clothes. He was now called Mahavira (great Hero) or Jina (conqueror). He taught his religion for the next 30 years in places such as Kosala, Magadha, Mithila and Champa. He died at the age of 72 in 467B.C at a place called Pavapuri near modern Rajgir.

Influences

The jains contributed much to the growth of literature in Pali, Prakrit and Tamil.

In Tamil Seevaka Shinthamani by Thiruthakka Thevar, Nannool, a Tamil grammar by Pavanandhi Munivar are rich literary works by the Jains. Even Thiruvalluvar is considered to be a Jain. Hemachandra was probably the greatest Jain historian.

He wrote A History of Gujarat. He compiled two lexicons (dictionaries) and wrote his famous Prakrit grammar. He also wrote the Yoga Sutra.

The Holy books of Jains are Angas and Purvas.

The contribution of the Jains to art and architecture are note worthy.

The Jain temple, called Dilwara temple, at Mount Abu in Rajastan is famous for its art and architecture. The Jain temples at Khajuraho, Chittor and Ranakpur are also famous for their
architecture.

Ranakpur is one of the main holy places of the Jains. The carvings at Udayagiri, Hathigumpha, Ellora and Girnar are good examples of Jain Art. The huge Gomateswara statue at Sravana Belgola near Mysore is another Jain monument.

Buddhism

Gautam Buddha

Buddha’s original name was Siddhartha. He lived about the same time as Mahavira. Siddhartha was born in 567 B.C in the Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu in Nepal. His father was Suddhodana. He was a Sakya chief of Kapilavastu. His mother, Mayadevi, died when Siddhartha was only seven days old. He was brought up by his step mother Mahaprajapati Gauthami. Siddhartha was brought up in great luxury. He married Yasodhara. A son was born to them named Rahul.

One day when Buddha was out driving in his chariot, he saw four signs. They convinced him of the misery in the world. He saw an uncared old man, a sick man, a funeral procession and a begger. These sad experiences affected the mind of Siddhartha. One day, at the age of 29 he left his child and wife. He became a hermit. He became the disciple of Aradakalama. But he was not satisfied with his teachings. Then he sought instructions under Rudraka. He found that mere meditation would not lead to final liberation. After some time he sat cross legged in deep meditation under a pipal tree for 12 years near Gaya. One fine morning he attained Supreme Knowledge. From that moment he was called Buddha (the enlightened one) or Sakya Muni (Sage of the Sakya Clan). Buddha spoke about his religion in public for the first time at a place called Saranath near Varanasi. He was very strong and could walk even 30 Kms in a single day. He travelled to many places in North India. He died at the age of 80 in 487 B.C. at Kusinagara in Uttarpradesh.

Influences

1. Many educational centres such as Nalanda, Vallabhi, Kanchi and Vikramasila were famous for
Buddhist teaching. Its legacy contained in its rich literature.

2. Many beautiful stupas at Sanchi and Vallabhi and Nalanda were built. The stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut contain a relic from Buddha’s life. There are also panels depicting the Jataka tales the previous births of Buddha). They are found at Gaya in Bihar and Sanchi and Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh.

3. The Gandhara sculptures and the paintings at Ellora and Ajanta are the gifts of Buddhism.

4. The Buddhists built many rock cut structures called Chaityas which were prayer halls and viharas, which were monasteries. Modern Bihar derived its name from Viharas.

5. Vinaya pitaka, Sutta pitaka and Abidhamma pitaka are the earliest literary works on Buddhism.

Comparision in philosophies of Buddhism and Jainism

The Buddhist texts mention Mahavira as an enlightened being. However some scholars believe that probably they belonged to different periods and had no contact with each other. According to one version, Mahavira spent some time in the company of Gosala, the founder of Ajivika sect and the Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, before they parted ways on account of serious differences over doctrinal issues.The period during which both Buddhism and Jainism rose to prominence was a period of great intellectual and religious churning in the Indian subcontinent. Many theistic and atheistic traditions competed with one another for popularity and acceptance. Buddhism and Jainism had an added advantage in the form of Mahavira and the Buddha. Both were charismatic leaders with an ability to communicate convincingly with influential members of society and also organize their respective communities around the ideals and the doctrine they preached.

Followers of both religions often engaged in heated discussion over finer aspects of their beliefs and ridiculed each other. However both groups had their own respective differences with the vedic religion and the ideals it represented. Of the two, Buddhism was more pronouncedin its criticism towards their common adversary. The very fact that the Buddha denounced extreme asceticism and ritualism as the means to salvation indicate that he probably viewed Jainism as an orthodox tradition not much different from the vedic religion. Both Buddhism and Jainism sought to attract the urban people for conversion. The Buddha and Mahavira frequently visited Benaras, Pataliputra and other popular cities to organize congregations and conversions, which must have led to some competition between the two communities for patronage, popularity and membership. Following are some of the differences and similarities between Buddhism and Jainism.

The Founders
Jainism was founded and propagated by a lineage of several thirthankaras who hailed mostly from the royal families. Some of the thirthankaras were historical personalities Mahavira was the last and perhaps the most popular of the thirthankaras. The thirthankaras are worshipped in temples and religious places not as gods but as enlightened beings who manifest upon earth as a part of human destiny. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama who became the Buddha after he received enlightenment. Like Mahavira, he also hailed from a royal family. In Buddhism there is no tradition of thirthankaras or a lineage of preachers or prophets. It has only one prophet in the form of the Buddha himself and even his teachings need not have to be accepted by the Buddhist blindly because that was what the Buddha himself recommended before his parinirvana. He wanted his followers to be lamps unto themselves, an idea that was echoed several centuries later by J.Krishnamurthy of the Theosophical Society when he declared that religion was a pathless land in which each had to find his or her own Path. However Buddhists; believe in the various incarnations and appearances of the Buddha and the existence of several Bodhisattvas or pure beings of compassion whom they worship for blessings and help. Some Buddhists believe that the Buddha will reincarnate again sometime in the future to revive the teachings of the Buddha.

The Existence of God and Soul
Both Buddhism and Jainism are atheistic religions. They deny the existence of God or the First Cause
of creation. Buddhism may be considered more as an agnostic religion rather than atheistic. The Buddha's stand on God was rather ambiguous. He maintained silence on the issue of the existence of God and refused to be drawn into any conversation or discussion on the subject, declaring it to be a distraction with no apparent benefit in the liberation of man.

Jainism acknowledges the presence of soul in every animate and inanimate object, including the elements of the universe, such as the earth, water, wind, fire and air. In addition to these Jainism believes in the tattvas or principles of natures such as buddhi, the sense organs etc. The Buddhists also believe in the tattvas of Prakriti but do not believe in the existence of eternal and indestructible souls. They also do not believe that inanimate objects have life or individuality. Buddhism is distinguished for its concept of non-soul or anatma. They declare that a being is an aggregate of elements and parts which come into existence on account of karma and continues its journey onwards through becoming and changing because of desires till it achieves nirvana or a state of non-becoming by right conduct and right living. The concept of a world filled with innumerable individual souls or clusters of souls, or souls lying hidden in rocks and mountains,; rivers and lakes, or stars and planets; is untenable in Buddhism.

The Existence of Divinities
Both religions acknowledge the presence of gods as higher beings who, like us, are also subject to change an evolution according to their karma. Most of the gods bear the same names as in Hinduism. But these counterparts are not the omnipotent and omniscient type. They are just beings of another plane or world, higher than ours, but with limited potency and knowledge. Jainism believes in the existence of enlightened pure beings, called Jinas or Kevalins who manifest upon earth from time to time to preach the doctrine. Buddhism also has its own group of enlightened beings known as Bodhisattvas, who are qualified for nirvana but prefer to postpone it to help the mankind in liberation; The Bodhisattvas take interest in the welfare of the world and work for its liberation. The Kevalins are worshipped in temples and homes. But not all Buddhists worship the Buddha or the Bodhisattvas ritually except by some who belongs to sects such as Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.

The Concept of Karma
Both Buddhism and Jainism believe in the concept of karma as a binding force responsible for the suffering of beings upon earth. They acknowledge the universality of karma and its inescapable effect on the individual beings who are subject to the cycle of births and rebirths. But they differ in respect of the nature of karma and how it impacts various beings. According to Jainism karma is not a mere effect or result of a being's actions, but a real substance that becomes attached to each jiva, like an impurity, while it performs many actions in the course of its existence upon earth. This karmic substance which is a kind of subtle matter or energy field, remains attached to the being until it is fully cleansed through the observation of vows, pure conduct and severe austerities. In Buddhism, as in Hinduism, karma is a process, a consequence of one's desire ridden actions that cling to the personality of a being as an impression of its past and determines its future. Good actions lead to good karma and bad actions to bad karma. One can address the problem of karma by following the teachings of the Buddha, the truths enshrined in the Dhamma and the code of conduct prescribed for the Sangha. The eightfold Path and the Four Noble Truths are the best means to minimize the negative effects of karma and work for salvation.

The Concept of Nirvana
Both religions believe in the concept of nirvana or liberation of bound beings. However there is a difference between them in respect of who achieves nirvana. According to Jainism souls are eternal entities which get entangled in the causative phenomena and become subject to the law of karma. In their liberated state the souls are conscious, eternal, pure and divine. But in their bound state they become subject to the cycle of births and death. Death is a mere separation of the soul from the body and birth is its entry into a new physical body as determined by its previous actions. A soul can free itself from the suffering and limitations of physical life by leading a pure and austere life according to the percepts taught by the thirthankaras. In some extreme cases it can also be achieved by destroying the body itself through austerities and self-mortification. After liberation, the Jiva or soul continues to remain as an individual soul, but in the highest state of purity and enlightenment. As far as the soul is concerned, the Jain concept of Nirvana has some similarities with both the Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools as well as some dualistic schools of Hinduism.

Buddhism does not believe in the existence of eternal souls. So it approaches the subject of liberation purely from a physical and mental perspective. What becomes liberated during nirvana is the individual personality that comes into existence on account of the aggregations of elements and consciousness. This individual personality is neither eternal nor divine. It is is an impermanent and unstable entity, which is subject to karma and the cycle of births and deaths. Nirvana is an indescribable state in which the individual personality becomes free once and for all from the process of becoming and changing and achieves some kind of stillness that is difficult to explain.

Methods of Propagation
The development of Buddhism and Jainism in ancient India coincided with the emergence of urban centers where strict implementation of the social order and the caste structure of the vedic religion was rather difficult if not impractical. Mahavira and the Buddha took advantage of the new mindset created by the challenges of urban life with regard to such common problems as congestion, death, disease and aging. They were both charismatic leaders and great organizers, with profound insight into human behavior and existential issues. They used self example, personal contact, debates and discussions as the effective means to bring people to their fold. Because of their own descent from princely families, they were able to maintain cordial relationship with the influential members of society, especially the kings and affluent merchants who could provide them with the necessary logistic support to continue their propagation. After receiving enlightenment, they spent most part of their lives traveling from place to place and preaching their respective doctrines. They rested during the monsoons and used the time effectively to train the monks and prepare them for liberation.

While vedic people believed that spiritualism was an entirely personal issue or the privilege of a few chosen ones based on birth, the Buddha and Mahavira made it their responsibility to take religion to the people, independent of their social, political or economic background and made every possible effort to make sure that people listened to them and understood them. The Buddha focused his attention on the lower strata of society, who were shunned by the Vedic elite on account of their caste or social background. Both of them maintained a clear distinction between the lay followers and the more serious, establishing distinct rules and percepts for each of the categories according to their needs and aspirations. They used Prakrit, the language of the common people, rather than Sanskrit, for the propagation of their respective doctrines. In the ancient world if vedic religion was enmeshed in the caste based limitations of its own creation, Buddhism and Jainism broke through all barriers and reached out to a cross section of society to teach them the secrets of salvation that were hitherto kept hidden from them. They embraced the common people whom the elite believed unfit for serious religious discipline

Social Equality, Morality and Gender Differences
Buddhism opposed the four fold social order of Vedic society which divided people into four castes namely Brahmins, warriors, merchants and workers. The Buddha admitted people from all wakes of life into Buddhism, although we are told that at times the higher castes received preferential treatment from him for their special value as men of virtue, knowledge and intellect. In initial stages the Buddha was opposed to the idea of admitting women into monastic life. He thought that their admittance would lead to the decline of virtue and moral standards in the Buddhist Order. However because of requests by his close followers and being unconditional he reluctantly initiated women into the monasteries formulating a policy of segregation with certain restrictions and conditions on their conduct and practice.

The concept of dividing people into classes and castes was not alien to Jainism. Rishabhanatha, the first thirthankara of Jainism is actually credited with the forumulation of social divisions based on occupation and virtue, which was subsequently morphed into a rigid caste system by the vedic people. The thirthankaras however showed no preference for a particular class. They admitted people from all sections of society according to their virtue and readiness for the rigors of spiritual life. At times they did secure help and support from influential sections of society to propagate their message. The same was true in case of Buddhism also.

Rituals and Morality
In the early days its popularity, Buddhism opposed the rites and rituals of vedic religion and focused more on righteous conduct as the means to liberation. Jainism had no such reservation. Brahmins; were employed in Jain temples as officiating priests to conduct the worship of the thirthankaras. However rituals play a minimal role in Jainism. Jainism is an austere religion, in which the emphasis is more on individual actions, restraint and inner purity for achieving liberation. Both religions deny the existence of God and discount the possibility of divine intervention or fate in salvation. What determines a being's destiny upon earth is its actions emanating from the exercise of its free will. Each is held personally responsible and accountable for its actions and has to work for its; salvation individually through the practice of virtue and uncompromising adherence to an established code of conduct and religious percepts.

Transmigration
Jainism believes in the transmigration of souls. Buddhism does not believe in the existence of souls. However it also believes in the transmigration. What transmigrates from one life to another is not the soul but the causative entity or the ego principle which is subject to the laws of karma and bound to the cycle of births and deaths. This causative entity is an aggregation of various physical and mental components which together constitute the individual personality which is subject to the experience of duality, pain and suffering. It continues to exist and undergoes constant change till it crosses the bridge of samsara and attains nirvana or a state of complete non-becoming.

The Nature of Existence and The Reality of Suffering
The Buddha preached that the human life was characterized by great misery and suffering because of desires and attachment pervading the consciousness of each jiva. For all intents and purposes the Buddhist view of the world is not comforting enough, if not negative, unless one has learned to deal with it suitably by cultivating equanimity towards the pairs of opposites through right living and right knowledge. For the beings caught in the vicious cycle of samsara or the causative phenomena, the world is not an ideal place to live. It is filled with the ubiquitous evil of suffering and torment. It offers a constantly changing and shifting reality in which beings become involved by their own actions, dreams and desires. The Buddhist world view is not based on some mystical or scriptural revelation. It is rooted in the mundane experiences of ordinary human existence, in the awareness of the current and immediate reality arising out of pure observation, contemplation and detached submission to the flow of events passing by. Man is bound to the cycle of births and deaths and subject to the afflictions of life by his own actions and deluded nature. He cannot find escape from them except through rigorous self-effort and commitment to the eightfold path.

For the Jains karma is not a mere process but a harsh reality. It is a physical substance from which no one can really escape without paying the price in the form of retribution, bondage and suffering. It is a subtle fluid like impurity which becomes attached to us according to our actions. The Jain world view is based mostly on scriptural injunctions established by the thirthankaras through their teachings. There is little scope for flexibility, personal freedom and experimentation in their implementation. The souls are real and eternal. In their pure state, they are not subject to the laws of bondage. For the souls the world offers an alternate reality. It is a snare filled with the evils of lust, greed, pride, anger and envy. The souls are pure consciousness. They exist in both animate and inanimate objects and are subject to the law of karma irrespective of their location. For Jains the world is one vast sacred place, permeated with innumerable souls caught in various stages of bondage and illusion. They are everywhere and in everything like atoms in the air of water. It is a fragile world too, which needs to be handled with utmost care and responsibility because the actions and reactions of each soul would create ripple effects upon other souls elsewhere. Even a mere act of drinking water or eating food calls for great precision and utmost care so as not to cause suffering to the souls present in the water, the food, the vessel, the air and the space surround them. Jainism therefore suggests a life of non-injury and prescribes a very rigorous, uncompromising and unforgiving code of conduct for the liberation of individuals in contrast to the middle path recommended by Buddhism.

Monastic Life
One of the common features of Buddhism and Jainism is the organization of monastic orders or communities of monks. Renunciation and asceticism are central to both religions as the principal means for liberation. The monks live together in groups and practice the percepts according to an established code of conduct. They share the community work such as cooking and cleaning on a rotation basis as a religious duty and opportunity to practice virtue. Usually the elder monks take charge of the community affairs and maintain order. They also share their knowledge and experience with the younger monks and new initiates, training them well for more advanced practices. The presence of many people living together sharing common values and beliefs creates strong vibrations, uplifting them all spiritually and help them in their progress.

Conclusion
Both Buddhism and Jainism originated and developed as distinct religions in the same geographical area comprising the present day Bihar and adjoining states, at a time when the vedic religion was yet to penetrate deep into the Gangetic valley. Its self-proclaimed superiority of the priestly classes and its unabashed attempts to exclude many from the study of the scriptures or practice or religion provoked a strong reaction among many intellectuals of the time especially from the ruling classes to which both the Buddha and Mahavira belonged. It led to a churning of religious ideas and the emergence of many rival traditions that vied with each other for support and fellowship. Of the few survived only Buddhism and Jainism were able to maintain their distinction as separate religions while the rest were assimilated into vedic religion with suitable modification.

There was a time when the two religions dominated the religious scene of India, pushing their common rival to a distinct third. Under the patronage of Asoka, Buddhism crossed the frontiers of Indian subcontinent and went to Nepal, China, Tibet (which is now part of China), far eastern countries, central Asia, Sri Lanka and Japan, while Jainism remained mostly confined to the land of its origin. In course of time, both religions also suffered from schism resulting in sectarian movements. For very long Buddhism kept its distinct stance against Hinduism, while Jainism maintained a more cordial and tolerant attitude, employing Brahmin priests in temple rituals and letting its beliefs and practices integrate into the rival tradition such as the concept of ahimsa or non-injury, vegetarianism, transmigration of souls, incarnation of pure beings, the concept of maya and karma and so on. Comparatively, Jainism was less popular than Buddhism. Its concept of karma made life a difficult ordeal for the weak, the insincere and the worldly minded. Its emphasis on extreme asceticism and inner purity discouraged many people from joining it. Interestingly, in the end it was Buddhism which declined in India and got overwhelmed by Hinduism, suffering in the process an identity crisis. Jainism on the other hand lost most of its following to both the rivals in the very early stages of religious development in India. But it survived till the end as a separate religion a with a committed following of its own.

On the whole comparision between Buddhism and Jainism

Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism

On God
Buddhism : The original Buddhist doctrine does not entail any godly figures, though the later Buddhist sects introduced some Godly figures. The Buddhists believe in the Godlike figures or the Bodhisattvas, who take interest in the welfare of the world and work for its liberation.

Jainism : Alike Buddhism, Jainism also denies the existence of God, though they acknowledge the presence of the Jinas or Kevalins, who are higher than human beings in status but subject to change and evolution. However, unlike the Bodhisattvas, the Kevalins are rather indifferent to the prayers and problems and remain unaffected.

On Nirvana
Buddhism : In Buddhism, nirvana is freedom from the cycle of rebirth, when a being turns into a state of non-being, or Sunya, looses its identity and becomes nothing.
Jainism : In Jainism, nirvana is a state of moksha, where a being looses its identity and is free from the cycle of birth and death.

On Liberation
Buddhism : The path of liberation in Buddhism goes through good conduct and good deeds, as mentioned in Eightfold path, Four Noble Truths, Five Preceptions and other moral conducts.
Jainism : Similarly, the path of liberation in Jainism is to follow right perception, right knowledge, and right conduct. One has to overcome the worldly desires and feelings to attain liberation or to become a perfect soul.

On Yogic Practices
Buddhism : Buddhism emphasises on the practice of mediation and other forms of Yoga to concentrate on inner self.

Jainism : In Jainism as well, meditation and other yogic practices are essential for self purification and liberation.

On Non-Violence
Buddhism : Buddhism is a peaceful religion with non-violence at the heart of its thoughts and behaviour.
Jainism : Non-violence followed in action, thought, and speech is the highest morale in Jainism.

Difference Between Buddhism And Jainism

On Karma
Buddhism : Buddhism believes in the universality of Karma, which is a result of one's action.
Jainism : Jainism also believes in the universality of karma and its effect on human beings. But, unlike Buddhism, karma, according to Jainism, is not a mere effect of one's actions, but a real substance that flows into each individual body or jiva. This karmic substance remains with a being until good conduct and self purification eliminates them.

On Soul
Buddhism : According to Buddhism, soul is an individuality that does exist in plants and animals, but not in non-living or inanimate things.
Jainism : According to Jainism, soul is present in every animate and inanimate object of the universe including its elements - earth, water, wind, fire and air.

On The Status And Evolution of Individual Beings
Buddhism : After Nirvana, there is no soul, but the individuality of an individual that passes into nothingness, which is beyond any description and speculation.
Jainism : After Nirvana, the soul continues to remain as an individual soul, but in the highest state of purity and enlightenment.
Survival And Disappearence : Over a period of time, while Buddhism disappeared from the Indian soil, Jainism survived in India, with its teachings intact, mostly untouched by the overwhelming philosophy and practices of Hinduism, at the same time imparting to the later some of its noblest ideas.

Besides, a major difference lies in the dominions of both the religions. Though both, Buddhism and Jainism, originated and developed individually in the same geographical area of India, but difference lies in their spread. While Buddhism crossed the frontiers of its motherland and went to other parts of the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, far eastern countries, and parts of North America and Europe as well, whereas Jainism, on the other hand, remained confined to India, the land of its origin.

History's Beardiest Badasses

2009-10-01T00:58:00.001-07:00

History's Beardiest Badasses

With Kimbo Slice stepping into the Octagon with "Big Country" Roy Nelson on tonight's The Ultimate Fighter, the time was right for us to pay some respect to the most brutal beard-bearers who ever lived.

5. Abraham Lincoln. Yes, Abe was honest - he honestly loved to lay the smack down. As a young man in New Salem, Illinois, Abe was constantly harassed by a gang called the Clary's Grove Boys (sort of the Crips of their day) He squared off with their leader, Jack Armstrong, and picked up the douche by his neck, slammed him against a wall and shook him around like a little girl. Now that's gangsta!

4. Lemmy Kilmister. The bass player and singer for Motorhead not only has a bad-ass beard, but a bad-ass name, too - "Let me kill, mister!" Despite being ugly as hell, Lemmy has still boned two thousand women. Let that sink in: a dude this ugly has the swagger to bed two K hotties. Damn. How about drugs? Lemmy's appetite for speed and LSD are legendary, but his best drug moment came when, asked to speak to the Welsh Parliament about the dangers of drugs, he immediately recommended that they legalize heroin!

3. Chuck Norris. After spending his childhood getting teased and bullied, Chuck discovered the martial arts in Korea and rapidly began racking up the belts, retiring with a career record of 183-10-2. Then: acting! Delta Force! Silent Rage! Forced Vengeance! And, finally, Walker: Texas Ranger - the role that made him a legend. At nearly 70 years old, Chuck can still roundhouse kick your face off of your face in slow-motion, so don't step.
2. Ulysses S. Grant. He fought in the Mexican-American War where the volunteered to carry a message, on horse, down a sniper infested street. Now normally, that'd just be pretty badass. But Grant didn't stop there. After proving he could hold it down with the common man between wars, he recruited a company of volunteers and eventually became a general in the Union army. We can sum it up with what Lincoln said about Grant following the battle of Shiloh: "I can't spare this man. He fights." Now that's a bearded hero.

1. Rasputin. The Russian "Mad Monk" is the most badass dude of all time. He got stabbed in the guts by a prostitute, but even with his entrails hanging out, he managed to get to a doctor. He was then poisoned with cyanide and shot through the back by Prince Felix Yusapov. The rats shot him three more times before throwing him in the icy Neva River. Three days later, his body was fished out and autopsied - the cause of death was drowning. Oh, and also? He had a thirteen inch crank, currently on display at the Museum of Erotica in St. Petersburg. If they save your dink after you die, you are a certified badass.
To bring it all back to today's bearded badass, check out four of Kimbo Slice's Most Epic Street Fights.

Peter Pan Story

2009-09-25T14:19:00.000-07:00

Peter Pan: or, The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up (1904) is the title of Scottish playwright and novelist James M. Barrie's most famous play, andPeter and Wendy is the title of Barrie's 1911 novelization of it. Both tell the story of Peter Pan, a mischievous little boy who can fly, and his adventures on the island of Neverland with Wendy Darling and her brothers, the fairy Tinker Bell, the Lost Boys, the Indian princess Tiger Lily, and the pirate Captain Hook. The play and novel were both inspired by Barrie's friendship with the Llewelyn Davies family. The novel follows the play closely, but includes a final chapter not part of the original play.

The play debuted in London December 27, 1904 with Nina Boucicault, daughter of plawright Dion Boucicault, in the title role. A Broadway production was mounted in 1905 starring Maude Adams. It was later revived with such actresses as Marilyn Miller and Eva Le Gallienne, and made into a silent film in 1924. The play has since seen adaptation as a stage musical, a television special, and two sound films - one a 1953 animatedDisney full-length feature, and one a 2003 British production with state-of-the-art special effects. The play is performed annually in its original form on stage in the United Kingdom. In the U.S., the 1954 musical version, which became popular on television, is usually staged live.

The novel was first published in 1911 by Hodder & Stoughton in the United Kingdom and Charles Scribner's Sons in the United States. The original book contains a frontispiece and 11 half-tone plates by artist F. D. Bedford (whose illustrations are still in copyright in the EU). The novel was first abridged by May Byron in 1915, with Barrie's permission, and published under the title Peter Pan and Wendy, the first time this form was used. This version was later illustrated by Mabel Lucie Attwell in 1921. The novel is now usually published under that title or simply Peter Pan. The script of the play, which Barrie had continued to revise since its first performance, was published in 1928. In 1929, Barrie gave the copyright of the Peter Pan works to Great Ormond Street Hospital, a children's hospital in London.

Barrie created Peter Pan in stories he told to the sons of his friend Sylvia Llewelyn Davies, with whom he had forged a special relationship. Mrs. Llewelyn Davies' death from cancer came within a few years after the death of her husband. Barrie was named as co-guardian of the boys and unofficially adopted them.

J. M. Barrie in 1901

The character's name comes from two sources: Peter Llewelyn Davies, one of the boys, and Pan, the mischievous Greek god of the woodlands. It has also been suggested that the inspiration for the character was Barrie's elder brother David, whose death in a skating accident at the age of thirteen deeply affected their mother. According to Andrew Birkin, author of J.M. Barrie and the Lost Boys, the death was 'a catastrophe beyond belief, and one from which she never fully recovered... If Margaret Ogilvy [Barrie's mother as the heroine of his 1896 novel of that title] drew a measure of comfort from the notion that David, in dying a boy, would remain a boy for ever, Barrie drew inspiration.'^[1]

The Peter Pan character first appeared in print in the 1902 novel The Little White Bird, written for adults,^[2] a fictionalised version of Barrie's relationship with the Llewelyn Davies children. The character was next used in the very successful stage play Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up that premiered in London on December 27, 1904.

In 1906, the portion of The Little White Bird which featured Peter Pan was published as the book Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens, with illustrations byArthur Rackham.^[3] Barrie then adapted the play into the 1911 novel Peter and Wendy (most often now published simply as Peter Pan).

The original draft of the play was entitled simply Anon: A Play ('Anon' being a name Barrie used in reference to himself). Barrie's working titles for it included The Great White Father^[4] and Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Hated Mothers. Producer Charles Frohman disliked the title on the manuscript, in answer to which Barrie reportedly suggested The Boy Who Couldn't Grow Up; Frohman suggested changing it to Wouldn't.^[5]

[edit]Plot summary

Although the character appeared previously in Barrie's book The Little White Bird,^[6] the play and the novel based on it contain the portion of the Peter Pan mythos that is best known. The two versions differ in some details of the story, but have much in common. In both versions Peter makes night-time calls on Kensington, London, listening in on Mrs. Mary Darling's bedtime stories by the open window. One night Peter is spotted and, while trying to escape, he loses his shadow. On returning to claim it, Peter wakes Mary's daughter, Wendy Darling. Wendy succeeds in re-attaching his shadow to him, and Peter learns that she knows lots of bedtime stories. He invites her to Neverland to be a mother to his gang, the Lost Boys, children who were lost in Kensington Gardens. Wendy agrees, and her brothers John and Michael go along.

Their magical flight to Neverland is followed by many adventures. The children are blown out of the air by a cannon and Wendy is nearly killed by the Lost Boy Tootles. Peter and the Lost Boys build a little house for Wendy to live in while she recuperates (a structure that, to this day, is called a Wendy House.) Soon John and Michael adopt the ways of the Lost Boys.

Illustration by F. D. Bedford from the first edition

Peter welcomes Wendy to his underground home, and she immediately assumes the role of mother figure. Peter takes the Darlings on several adventures, the first truly dangerous one occurring at Mermaids' Lagoon. At Mermaids' Lagoon, Peter and the Lost Boys save the princess Tiger Lily and become involved in a battle with the pirates, including the evil Captain Hook. Peter is wounded when Hook claws him. He believes he will die, stranded on a rock when the tide is rising, but he views death as "an awfully big adventure". Luckily, a bird allows him to use her nest as a boat, and Peter sails home.

Because he has saved Tiger Lily, the Indians are devoted to him, guarding his home from the next imminent pirate attack. Meanwhile, Wendy begins to fall in love with Peter. Peter is confused and disturbed by this turn of events; when he voices his concern, he hurts Wendy's feelings, and she decides to take John and Michael and return to England. Unfortunately, and unbeknownst to Peter, Wendy and the boys are captured by Captain Hook, who also tries to poison Peter's medicine while the boy is asleep. When Peter awakes, he learns from the fairy Tinker Bell that Wendy has been kidnapped – in an effort to please Wendy, he goes to drink his medicine. Tink does not have time to warn him of the poison, and instead drinks it herself, causing her near death. Peter invokes the sympathy of children who might be dreaming of him, and Tinker Bell is saved.

Peter heads to the ship. On the way, he encounters the ticking crocodile; Peter decides to copy the tick, so any animals will recognize it and leave him unharmed. He does not realize that he is still ticking as he boards the ship, where Hook cowers, mistaking him for the crocodile. While the pirates are searching for the croc, Peter sneaks into the cabin to steal the keys and frees the Lost Boys. When the pirates investigate a noise in the cabin, Peter defeats them. When he finally reveals himself, he and Hook fall to the climactic battle, which Peter easily wins. He kicks Hook into the jaws of the waiting crocodile, but the wicked pirate promises that he will return. Then Peter takes control of the ship, and sails the seas back to London.

In the end, Wendy decides that her place is at home, much to the joy of her heartsick mother. Wendy then brings all the boys but Peter back to London. Before Wendy and her brothers arrive at their house, Peter flies ahead, to try and bar the window so Wendy will think her mother has forgotten her. But when he learns of Mrs Darling's distress, he bitterly leaves the door unlocked and flies away. Peter returns briefly, and he meets Mrs. Darling, who has agreed to adopt the Lost Boys. She offers to adopt Peter as well, but Peter refuses, afraid they will "catch him and make him a man". It is hinted that Mary Darling knew Peter when she was a girl, because she is left slightly changed when Peter leaves.

Peter promises to return for Wendy every spring. The end of the play finds Wendy looking out through the window and saying into space, "You won't forget to come for me, Peter? Please, please don't forget".

[edit]An Afterthought

A few years after the premiere of the original production of Peter Pan, James Barrie wrote an additional scene entitled An Afterthought, which is sometimes, but usually not, included in productions of the play. It was, however, included as the final chapter of Peter and Wendy. In this scene, Peter returns for Wendy years later, but Wendy is now grown, with a daughter of her own. When Peter learns that Wendy has "betrayed" him by growing up, he is heartbroken. But Wendy's daughter Jane agrees to come to Neverland as Peter's new mother. In the novel's last few sentences, Barrie mentions that Jane has grown up, and that Peter now takes her daughter Margaret to Neverland. Barrie says this cycle will go on forever as long as children are "innocent and heartless".

This epilogue is only occasionally used in presentations of the drama, but it made a poignant conclusion to the famous musical production starring Mary Martin, and provided the premise for Disney's sequel to their animated adaptation of the story.

[edit]Characters

[edit]Peter Pan

Main article: Peter Pan

Peter Pan is the main character of the play and the novel. He is described in the novel as a young boy who still has all his first teeth; he wears clothes made of hemp. He is the only boy able to fly without the help of fairy dust, and he can play the flute. Peter is afraid of nothing except women. He loves Wendy; however, it is not a romantic love — he thinks of her as his mother. Barrie attributes this to "the riddle of his existence".

[edit]The Darling Family

Wendy Darling by Oliver Herford, "The Peter Pan Alphabet", Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1907

Wendy Darling — Wendy is the eldest, the only daughter and the heroine of the novel. She loves the idea of homemaking and storytelling and wants to become a mother; her dreams consist of adventures in a little woodland house with her pet wolf. She bears a bit of (mutual) animosity toward Tiger Lily because of their similar affections toward Peter. She does not seem to feel the same way about Tinker Bell, but the fairy is constantly bad-mouthing her and even has attempted to have her killed. She grows up at the end of the novel, with a daughter (Jane) and a granddaughter (Margaret). She is portrayed with blonde, brown, or black hair in different stories. While it is not clear on whether or not she is in love with Peter, it is safe to assume that she does have feelings toward him, at least as a child. Perhaps consequently, Wendy is often referred to as the "mother" of the Lost Boys and, while Peter also considers her to be his "mother", he takes on the "father" role, insinuating that they play a married couple at least in their games.

Several writers have stated that Barrie was the first to use the name Wendy in a published work, and that the source of the name was Barrie's childhood friend, Margaret Henley, 4-year-old daughter of poet William Ernest Henley, who pronounced the word "friend" as "Fweiendy", adapted by Barrie as "Wendy" in writing the play.^[7] There is some evidence that the name Wendy may be related to the Welsh name Gwendolyn,^[8]^[9] and it is also used as a diminutive variant of the eastern European name "Wanda",^[10] but prior to its use in the Peter Pan stories, the name was not used as an independent first name.^[11]

John Darling — John is the middle child. He gets along well with Wendy, but he often argues with Michael. He is fascinated with pirates, and he once thought of becoming "Redhanded Jack". He dreams of living in an inverted boat on the sands, where he has no friends and spends his time shooting flamingos. He looks up to Peter Pan, but at times they clash due to Peter's nature of showing off. He also looks up to his father and dreams of running his firm one day when he is grown up. The character of John was named after Jack Llewelyn Davies.

Michael Darling — Michael is the youngest child. He is approximately five years old, as he still wears the pinafores young Edwardian boys wear. He looks up to John and Wendy, dreaming of living in a wigwam where his friends visit at night. He was named after Michael Llewelyn Davies.

Mr. and Mrs. Darling — George and Mary Darling are the children's loving parents. Mr. Darling is a pompous, blustering businessman who seeks to attract attention (from his co-workers to his wife and children), but he is really kind at heart. Mary Darling is described as an intelligent, romantic lady. It is hinted that she knew Peter Pan before her children were born. Mr. Darling was named after the eldest Llewellyn Davies boy, George, and Mrs. Darling was named after Mary Hodgson, the Davies boys' nurse. In the stage version, the same actor who plays Mr. Darling usually also plays Captain Hook.

Nana — Nana is a Newfoundland dog who is employed as a nanny by the Darling family in Kensington Gardens. Nana does not speak or do anything beyond the physical capabilities of a large dog, but acts with apparent understanding of her responsibilities. The character is played in stage productions by an actor in a dog costume. Barrie based the character of Nana on his dog "Porthos", a Newfoundland dog.^[12]

There is also the servant or maid girl, Liza, who swears she's past ten and thus quite grown up. In the stage version, the same actress who plays Tiger Lily often plays this character.

[edit]Lost Boys

Main article: Lost Boys (Peter Pan)

Tootles — Tootles is the humblest Lost Boy because he often misses out on their violent adventures. Although he is often stupid, he is always the first to defend Wendy. Ironically, he shoots her before meeting her for the first time because of Tinker Bell's trickery. He grows up to become a judge.
Nibs — Nibs is described as gay and debonair, probably the bravest Lost Boy. He says the only thing he remembers about his mother is she always wanted a cheque-book; he says he would love to give her one. He's also the oldest and best looking Lost Boy.
Slightly — Slightly is the most conceited because he believes he remembers the days before he was "lost". He is the only Lost Boy who "knows" his last name — he says his pinaforehad the words "Slightly Soiled" written on the tag. He cuts whistles from the branches of trees, and dances to tunes he creates himself. Slightly is apparently a poor make-believer. He blows big breaths when he feels he is in trouble, and he eventually leads to Peter's almost-downfall.
Curly — Curly is the most troublesome Lost Boy. In later versions of the story, he became "Cubby"
The Twins — First and Second Twin know little about themselves — they are not allowed to, because Peter Pan does not know what Twins are (he thinks that twins are two parts of the same person). First Twin is a mighty dancer, who loves to wear a dunce cap. He is called proud in Peter Pan and Wendy.

[edit]Inhabitants of Neverland

Tiger Lily is the proud, beautiful princess of the Piccaninny Tribe. In the book, the Indians of Neverland were portrayed in a nature that is now regarded to be a stereotypical^[13]. Barrie portrayed them primitive, warlike savages who spoke with guttural voice tones.^[13] She is apparently old enough to be married, but she refuses any suitors because she desires Peter over all. She is jealous of Wendy and Tinker Bell. Tiger Lily is nearly killed by Captain Hook when she is seen boarding the Jolly Roger with a knife in her mouth, but Peter saves her. In the stage version, the same actress plays Tiger Lily and the Servant or Maid in the beginning with the Darling family.
Tinker Bell is Peter Pan's fiery, jealous fairy. She is described as a common fairy who mends pots and kettles and, though she is sometimes ill-behaved and vindictive, at other times she is helpful and kind to Peter (for whom she has romantic feelings). The extremes in her personality are explained by the fact that a fairy's size prevents her from holding more than one feeling at a time. In Barrie's book, by Peter's first annual return for Wendy, the boy has forgotten about Tinker Bell and suggests that she "is no more" for fairies do not live long.
Captain James Hook is the vengeful pirate who lives to kill Peter Pan, not so much because Peter cut off his right hand, but because the boy is "cocky" and drives the genteel pirate to "madness". He is captain of the ship Jolly Roger. He attended Eton College before becoming a pirate and is obsessed with "good form". Hook meets his demise when a crocodile eats him. In the stage version, the same actor who plays Mr. Darling also plays this character.
Mr. Smee is an Irish nonconformist pirate. He is the boatswain of the Jolly Roger. Smee is one of only two pirates to survive Peter Pan's massacre. He then makes his living saying he was the only man James Hook ever feared.
Gentleman Starkey was once an usher at a public school. He is Captain Hook's first mate. Starkey is one of two pirates who escaped Peter Pan's massacre — he swims ashore and becomes baby-sitter to the Piccaninny Tribe. Peter Pan gives Starkey's hat to the Never Bird to use as a nest.
Fairies — In the novel Peter and Wendy, published in 1911, there are fairies on Neverland. In the part of the story where Peter Pan and the Lost Boys built a house for Wendy on Neverland, Peter Pan stays up late that night to guard her from the pirates, but then the story says: "After a time he fell asleep, and some unsteady fairies had to climb over him on their way home from an orgy. Any of the other boys obstructing the fairy path at night they would have mischiefed, but they just tweaked Peter's nose and passed on."^[14]

[edit]Major themes

The play's subtitle "The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up" underscores the primary theme: the conflict between the innocence of childhood and the responsibility of adulthood. Peter has literally chosen not to make the transition from one to the other, and encourages the other children to do the same. However, the opening line, "All children, except one, grow up," and the conclusion of the story indicates that this wish is unrealistic, and there is an element of tragedy in the alternative.

There is a slight romantic aspect to the story, which is sometimes played down or omitted completely. Wendy's flirtatious desire to kiss Peter, his desire for a mother figure, his conflicting feelings for Wendy, Tiger Lily, and Tinker Bell (each representing different female archetypes), and the symbolism of his fight with Captain Hook (traditionally played by the same actor as Wendy's father), all could possibly hint at a Freudian interpretation (see Oedipus Complex). Most "children's adaptations" of the play omit any romantic themes between Wendy and Peter, but Barrie's 1904 original, his 1911 novelization of it, the 1954 Disney musical, and the 1924 and 2003 feature films, all at least hint at the romantic elements.

[edit]Literary significance

[edit]Productions

The original stage production took place at the Duke of York's Theatre, London, on December 27, 1904. It starred Gerald du Maurier as Captain Hook and Mr Darling, and Nina Boucicaultas Peter.^[15] Zena Dare played Peter in the 1905-1906 production, and Pauline Chase took the role from the 1906–07 season until the 1914–15 season.^[16]

Following the success of his London production, Charles Frohman also mounted a production in New York City in 1905. The 1905 Broadway production starred Maude Adams who would play the role on and off again for more than a decade, and in the US was the actress most associated in the public's consciousness with the role for the next fifty years. It was produced again in the US by the Civic Repertory Theater in November 1928 to December 1928, in which Eva LeGallienne directed and played the role of Peter Pan. An American musical version was produced in the 1950s starring Mary Martin which was later videotaped for television and rebroadcast several times. Martin remains today as the actress now most associated with the role in the US.

It is traditional in productions of Peter Pan for Mr. Darling (the children's father) and Captain Hook to be played (or voiced) by the same actor. Although this was originally done simply to make full use of the actor (the characters appear in different sections of the story) with no thematic intent, some critics have perceived a similarity between the two characters as central figures in the lives of the children. It also brings a poignant juxtaposition between Mr. Darling's harmless bluster and Captain Hook's pompous vanity.

[edit]Gallery

Michael Llewelyn Davies as Peter Pan photographed by J. M. Barrie, 1906	J. M. Barrie playing Neverland with Michael Llewelyn Davies, 1906	Zena Dare as Pan, c. 1906	Maude Adams as Peter in an early stage production
Tiger Lily by Oliver Herford, "The Peter Pan Alphabet", Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1907	Captain Hook by F. D. Bedford, 1911	Peter Pan and Wendy, 1915	Paramount film poster, 1924

[edit]Adaptations

Main article: Works based on Peter Pan

The story of Peter Pan has been a popular one for adaptation into other media. The story and its characters have been used as the basis for a number of motion pictures (live action and animated), stage musicals, television programs, a ballet, and ancillary media and merchandise. The best known of these are the 1953 animated feature film produced by Disney featuring the voice of 15-year-old film actor Bobby Driscoll; the series of musical productions (and their televised presentations) starring Mary Martin, Sandy Duncan, and Cathy Rigby; and the 2003 live-action feature film produced by P. J. Hogan starring Jeremy Sumpter.

There have been several additions to Peter Pan's story, including the authorised sequel novel Peter Pan in Scarlet, and the high-profile sequel films Return to Never Land and Hook. Various characters from the story have appeared in other places, especially Tinker Bell as a mascot and character of Disney. The characters are in the public domain in some jurisdictions, leading to unauthorised extensions to the mythos and uses of the characters. Some of these have been controversial, such as a series of prequels by Dave Barry and Ridley Pearson, and Lost Girls a sexually explicit graphic novel by Alan Moore and Melinda Gebbie featuring Wendy Darling and the heroines of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.

[edit]Copyright status

The copyright status of the story of Peter Pan and its characters has been the subject of dispute, particularly as the original version began to enter the public domain in various jurisdictions. In 1929, Barrie gave the copyright to the works featuring Peter Pan to Great Ormond Street Hospital (GOSH), Britain's leading children's hospital, and requested that the value of the gift should never be disclosed; this gift was confirmed in his will. GOSH has exercised these rights internationally to support the work of the institution.

[edit]United Kingdom

The UK copyright originally expired at the end of 1987 (50 years after Barrie's death), but was revived in 1995 through 31 December 2007 by a directive to harmonize copyright laws within the EU. Meanwhile in 1988, former Prime Minister James Callaghan sponsored a Parliamentary Bill granting a perpetual extension of some of the rights to the work, entitling the hospital to royalties for any performance, publication, or adaptation of the play. This is not a true perpetual copyright however, as it does not grant the hospital creative control over the use of the material, nor the right to refuse permission to use it.^[17] The law also does not cover the Peter Pan section of The Little White Bird, which pre-dates the play and was not therefore an "adaptation" of it. The exact phrasing is in section 301 of, and Schedule 6 to, the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988:

301. The provisions of Schedule 6 have effect for conferring on trustees for the benefit of the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street, London, a right to a royalty in respect of the public performance, commercial publication, broadcasting or inclusion in a cable programme service of the play 'Peter Pan' by Sir James Matthew Barrie, or of any adaptation of that work, notwithstanding that copyright in the work expired on 31 December 1987.^[18]

[edit]United States

For some time, Great Ormond Street Hospital claimed that U.S. legislation effective in 1978 and again in 1998, which extended the copyright on the version of the play script published in 1928, gave them copyright over "Peter Pan" in general, until 2023.^[19] The hospital's web site later acknowledged that the copyright for the novel version of the story, published in 1911, had expired in the United States, and asserted only that their copyright applied to the published version of the script and performances of it.^[20]

Previously, GOSH's claim of U.S. copyright had been contested by various parties. J. E. Somma sued GOSH to permit the U.S. publication of her sequel After the Rain, A New Adventure for Peter Pan. GOSH and Somma settled out of court in March 2005, issuing a joint statement which characterized her novel – which she had argued was a commentary on the original work rather than a mere derivative of it – as "fair use" of the hospital's "U.S. intellectual property rights". Their confidential settlement did not set any legal precedent, however.^[21] Disney was as long-time licensee to the animation rights, and cooperated with the hospital when its copyright claim was clear, but in 2004 published Dave Barry's and Ridley Pearson's Peter and the Starcatchers in the U.S., the first of several sequels, without permission and without making royalty payments. In 2006, Top Shelf Productions published Lost Girls, a pornographicgraphic novel featuring Wendy Darling, in the U.S. also without permission or royalties.

[edit]Other jurisdictions

The original versions of the play and novel are in the public domain in countries where the term of copyright is 70 years (or less) after the death of the creators. This includes the European Union (except Spain), Australia, Canada (where Somma's book was first published without incident), and many other countries (see list of countries' copyright length). This is also true inAfghanistan and Ethiopia, which do not have copyright laws of their own and are not signatories to any of the international copyright treaties. However, the work is still under copyright in several countries: until 2013 in Guatemala, Honduras, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, where copyright lasts 75 years after the author's death; in Colombia and Spain until 2018, where the term is 80 years after death for authors who died before 1987; until 2037 in Cote d'Ivoire, where the term is 99 years after death; and in Mexico until 2038, where the term is 100 years after death.

[edit]See also

Peter Pan (disambiguation)
Peter Pan, the fictional character
Works based on Peter Pan
Peter Pan syndrome
Peter Pan's Flight, an attraction at many of the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts.
Randy Constan, a popular Peter Pan cosplayer.

Gun History

2009-09-25T14:15:00.000-07:00

In military parlance, a gun is a muzzle or breech-loaded projectile-firing weapon. There are various definitions depending on the nation and branch of service. A "gun" may be distinguished from other firearms in being a crew served weapon such as a howitzer or mortar, as opposed to a small arm like a rifle or pistol, but there are exceptions, such as the USAF's GUU5/P. At one time, land-based artillery tubes were called cannon and sea-based naval cannon were called guns. The term "gun" morphed into a generic term for any tube launched projectile firing weapon used by sailors including boarding parties and Marines.

In modern parlance, a gun is a projectile weapon using a hollow, tubular barrel with a closed end—the breech—as the means of directing the projectile (as well as other purposes, for example stabilizing the projectile's trajectory, aiming, as an expansion chamber for propellant, etc), and firing in a generally flat trajectory.

The term "gun" has also taken on a more generic meaning, by which it has come to refer to any one of a number of trigger-initiated, hand-held, and hand-directed implements, especially with an extending bore, which thereby resemble the class of weapon in either form or concept. Examples of this usage include staple guns, nail guns, and glue guns. Occasionally, this tendency is ironically reversed, such as the case of the American M3 submachine gun which carries the nickname "Grease Gun".

Most guns are described by the type of barrel used, the means of firing, the purpose of the weapon, the caliber, or the commonly accepted name for a particular variation.

Barrel types include rifled—a series of spiraled grooves or angles within the barrel—when the projectile requires an induced spin to stabilize it and smoothbore when the projectile is stabilized by other means or is undesired or unnecessary. Typically, interior barrel diameter and the associated projectile size is a means to identify gun variations. Barrel diameter is reported in several ways. The more conventional measure is reporting the interior diameter of the barrel in decimal fractions of the inch or in millimeters. Some guns—such as shotguns—report the weapon's gauge or—as in some British ordnance—the weight of the weapon's usual projectile.

A gun projectile may be a simple, single-piece item like a bullet, a casing containing a payload like a shotshell or explosive shell, or complex projectile like a sub-caliber projectile and sabot. The propellant may be air, an explosive solid, or an explosive liquid. Some variations like the Gyrojet and certain other types combine the projectile and propellant into a single item.

The use of the term "cannon" is interchangeable with "gun" as words borrowed from the French language during the early 15th century, from Old French canon, itself a borrowing from the Italian cannone, a "large tube" augmentive of Latin canna "reed or cane".^[1] Recent scholarship indicates that the term "gun" may also have its origins in the Norse woman's name "Gunnildr", which was often shortened to "Gunna".^[2] The earliest recorded use of the term "gonne" was in a Latin document circa 1339. Other names for guns during this era were "schioppi" (Italian translation-"thunderers"), and "donrebusse" (Dutch translation-"thunder gun") which was incorporated into the English language as "blunderbuss".^[3] Artillerymen were often referred to as "gonners" and "artillers".^[4] Early guns and the men who used them were often associated with the devil and the gunner's craft was considered a black art, a point reinforced by the smell of sulfur on battlefields created from the firing of guns along with the muzzle blast and accompanying flash.^[5]

In military use, the term "gun" refers primarily to direct fire weapons that capitalize on their velocity for penetration or range. In modern parlance, these weapons are breech-loaded and built primarily for long range fire with a low or almost flat ballistic arc. A variation is the howitzer or gun-howitzer designed to offer the ability to fire both low or high-angle ballistic arcs. In this use, example guns include naval guns. A less strict application of the word is to identify one artillery weapon system or non-machine gun projectile armament on aircraft.

The word cannon is retained in some cases for the actual gun tube but not the weapon system. The title gunner is applied to the member of the team charged with operating, aiming, and firing a gun.

Autocannon are automatic guns designed primarily to fire shells and are mounted on a vehicle or other mount. Machine guns are similar, but usually designed to fire simple projectiles. In some calibers and some usages, these two definitions overlap.

A related military use of the word is in describing gun-type fission weapon. In this instance, the "gun" is part of a nuclear weapon and contains an explosively propelled sub-critical slug offissile material within a barrel to be fired into a second sub-critical mass in order to initiate the fission reaction. Potentially confused with this usage are small nuclear devices capable of being fired by artillery or recoilless rifle.

In civilian use, a related item used in agriculture is a captive bolt gun. Such captive piston guns are often used to humanely stun farm animals for slaughter.^[6]

Shotguns are normally civilian weapons used primarily for hunting. These weapons are typically smooth bored and fire a shell containing small lead or steel balls. Variations use rifled barrels or fire other projectiles including solid lead slugs, a Taser XREP projectile capable of stunning a target, or other payloads. In military versions, these weapons are often used to burst door hinges or locks in addition to antipersonnel uses.1

[edit]Types of guns

Colt Python .357 Magnum revolver

Marlin Model 1894C — a carbine in .357 Magnum

[edit]Military firearms

Long gun

[edit]Machine guns

[edit]Handguns

Handgun
- Revolver

[edit]Autocannon

[edit]Artillery guns

Artillery gun
- Carronade
- Howitzer

[edit]Tank guns

[edit]Hunting guns

[edit]Guns for training and entertainment

[edit]See also

[edit]Citations and notes

^ [1] Online Etymological Dictionary
^ Kelly, Jack. (2004). Gunpowder Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics:The History of the Explosive that Changed the World. Basic Books. pg.31
^ Ibid:pg.31
^ Ibid:pg.30
^ Ibid:pg.32
^ Captive Bolt Stunning Equipment and the Law - How it applies to you (pdf)

MR.B

[edit]References

Lee, R.G., Introduction to battlefield weapons, systems & technology, Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham, UK, Brassey's Publishers, Oxford, 1981

Look up gun in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.